Insight into Kautilya Arthashastra with Perspective of Ayurveda

Introduction

Arthashastra entails the science of wealth, polity, and material gain. The book is a master work which includes an array of topics like statecraft, politics, strategy, selection & training of employees, leadership, skills, legal systems, accounting system, taxation, fiscal policies, civil rules, internal and foreign trade written by Kautilya / vishnugupta / Chanakya, around 4^th century BCE.¹

Ayurveda is an ancient system of life and also the oldest surviving medical system in the world, dating back almost 5000 years. It includes factors like herbal medicine, body works & surgery apart from social, psychological, ethical, spiritual, intellectual facts of life of human beings. Safety of medicine and treatments have always been given high priority in the tradition of Ayurveda. It is penitent to point out that Ayurveda is perhaps the earliest system of medicine to have developed the specialized discipline of toxicity. Agad tantra is one of the eight clinical specialities of Ayurveda, in which separate chapter has been devoted exclusively for food safety (Annaraksa).²

When it comes to medicinal plants, toxicity of poisonous plants has been well described. Those commonly used in Ayurvedic formulations are to be used only after purification. Elaborated methods of purification and processing have been described to render toxic materials into non-toxic and safe for human use.³ Not only is there a scope in Ayurveda to find solutions for toxic materials used inits formulations, but there is also a great scope for discovering solutions to new challenges in toxicity that have emerged in the modern world.

Arthashastra incorporates Hindu philosophy, includes ancient economic andcultural details on agriculture, mineralogy, mining & metals, animal husbandry, medicine, forest & wildlife.⁴ Arthashastra is divided into 15 Adhikarana, 150 chapters, 180 topics, containing about 6000 hymns.⁵ Summary of all Adhikarana of Kautilyaarthashastra is tabulated in Table 1.

Materials and Method

References pertaining to Arthashastra have been collected from various available books on Kautily’s Arthashatra and Ayurvedic treatises such as Charaksamhita, Susrutasamhita, Ashtanghridaya and other Samhitas with its available commentaries. Related articles from various websites have been referred and critically analysed.

Information Source

An extensive search was carried out with keywords Kautilya Arthashastra. Many articles popped up related to urban planning studies, war and diplomacy in ancient India and so on. When the keywords were changed to Kautilya Arthashastra and Ayurveda in various data bases, only one article was found which was thoroughly studied and the content is tabulated in Table 2.

Additional Analysis

Toxicological aspects of Arthashastra have been explored with the help of Ayurvedic literatures (i.e., Brihatryee).

Results

1. Related to Agada Tantra (Toxicology)

1.1. Vishadusta Anna Laxana (Characteristics of poisonous food):

Foods (Vegetables, pulses, rice, meat etc.) which would flow naturally cease to flow when mixed with poison, require long time to cook; cooked ones become stale, losing their (good) fumes and becomes hard; undergo change in respect to their normal colour, smell, taste, and aroma,becomes very moist and appear to be full of glistening particles.

Accumulation of foam appearance of dividing lines of stripe, threads and bubbles show up. In those with predominance of salt, lines of foam appear especially. And such signs indicating towards the poison in food materials are given below in Table 3.

1.2. Visha Pariksha Through Agni (Examination on fire):

When poisoned food is thrown over the fire, it burns with single point flame (not with normal spreading flame), becomes like Peacock’s neck, interrupted and slow, emits flame of different colours like a rainbow and gives out cracking loud sound. The smoke that emerges will be smelling like that of dead body, causes fainting, watering of the eyes, nose and mouth, horripilation’s, headache, running in the nose and disturbance of vision.¹⁰

1.3. Visha Pariksha By Ingesting Poison to Various Birds (Methods of detection of poison):

In ancient times, kings used to be killed using food mixed with poison. So when food was suspected as poison, it would be tested. The king would partake of such fresh dishes, after making an oblation out of them first to the fire and then to birds in order to check the poisonous food.¹¹ In ancient scriptures of Ayurveda, various methods of detection of poison have been described.

Examination of reaction of various birds to poisonous food has been tabulated in Table 4.

1.4. Vishadata Laksana (Features of the person who puts poison):

In Ayurveda -

Both Acharya Sushruta as well as Acharya Vagbhata have mentioned Vishada purusha laksana, and most of them are common. Viz., Shyavashushka Asya (dry and discoloured ace), VilakshoVeekshatedishaha (eccentrically looks in all directions), Svedavepathuman (sweating and tremors), Trasta (tired), Bheeta (frightened), Skhalati (slips while talking and walking), Jrumbhate (yawns frequently), Skhalitagati (Losing balance while walking), and so on.¹⁵

In KautilyaArthashastra -

Kautilya described similar features as mentioned in Ayurveda, Viz., parched and dry mouth, hesitation in speaking, heavy perspiration, yawning, too much bodily tremor, frequent tumbling, evasion of speech, carelessness in work, and unwillingness to keep to the place assigned to him.¹⁶

1.5. Visha Kanya (Poisoned women):

The concept of Visha Kanya has been mentioned elaborately in Kautilya Arthashastra. Likewise in Ayurveda, it has been explained very briefly. Since, the Adhikarana for both the shastras are different.

In Ayurveda - In AstangaSangraha, vishakanya was defined very specifically. The method of making of Visha Kanya (Poisoned women) by administering small quantities of poison daily even from the day of birth, and thus making the body of a woman to become poisonous was described. Person dies by touching her, by her breath and such other contacts.

Vagbhatta Samhita mentions that women serve food mixed with their sweat, menstrual blood or different types of excreta of their body to gain favour from their husband. Also under the influence of enemies, they may administer Garvisha along with food. In the ancient times, Vishkanya were also used in such ways. Vishkanya were young women reportedly use as assassins, often against powerful enemy, in ancient Indian subcontinent. It is also said that Vishakanya can caused instant death with just a touch.¹⁷

In Chanakya Arthashastra -

The vishakanya (poison girl) were young woman reportedly used as assassins, often against powerful enemies, during the times of the ancient India. Their blood and bodily fluids were purportedly poisonous to other humans, as was mentioned in the ancient Indian treatise on statecraft. Chanakya added extremely small amounts of poison in Chandragupta’s food since his childhood in order to make him immune against poison. As there were many enemies of the Mauryan Emperor, he was likely to be poisoned at his home too. This was the exact same way the Vishkanyas were created.¹⁸

1.6. Visha Chikitsa

In Kautilya Arthashastra,

In book XIV (secret means) under chapter IV (Remedies against the injuries of one’s own army), some remedies (treatments) for poisonous substances and formulations were mentioned. Mode of administration of such formulations are mentioned in Figure 1.

Drugs used for Kashaya:

ślēṣmātaka, kapittha, mādanti, viṣa (ativiṣa), paṭōla, balā, śyōnāka, śvētā, tagara, candana and sālavriki.¹⁹

Drugs used for BahyaChikitsa:

Śvētā, tagara, priyaṅgu, mañjiṣṭhā, lākṣārasa, madhuka, haridrā, madhu and jīvanti.²⁰

In Ayurveda –

Ayurveda has its own way of approach towards the management of Visha, which has been extensively narrated by all Brihatrayee. This includes both Abhayantara as well as Bahya mode of treatment. Ayurveda highlights that when visha is utilized in a proper way, it can become the best medicine. Though basically they are visha, when properly administered along with pathyas, they act as vishaghna, rasayana in many conditions.²¹

In Charakasamhita, twenty-four modalities of treatment of poisoning are explained which can be used as general principles of treatment of poisoning in Sthavara and Jangamavisha.²²

Sushrutasamhita, Ashtang Sangraha and Ashtang Hridaya describes Vishavega of both sthavara and jangama. They have been narrated followed by separate chikitsa of same.

1. Other Chikitsa

1.1. Mantra prayoga (Application of Mantras):

In Ayurveda -

Daiva-Vyapasraya Chikitsa is the spiritual way of healing in Ayurveda. Amongst all,“Mantra” is explained in Ayurveda as the foremost in various places.²³ It is explained in various events both in healthy and unhealthy conditions. It is equally useful in healthy people to maintain the health and to treat the diseases in diseased patients. Hence it is even explained under the code of Sadvritta of Ayurveda.²⁴

After thorough observation of Ayurveda, we can find many references related to application of mantra. Some of them are tabulated in Table 6.

In Kautilya Arthashastra -

Mantra prayoga in kautilya is entirely different since the Adhikarana to explain the particular concept is different. In order to protect the institution of the four castes, the measures which are narrated in “secret means” Adhikarana shall be applied against the wicked. In Arthashastra, application of mantra has been mentioned throughout the Shastra. Among them few are tabulated in Table 7.

2.2. Drugs induced pigmentation:

In Ayurveda -

Acharya Sushruta mentioned kr̥ṣṇakarma (Blackening) and paṇḍukarma (Whitening) as two karmas among the Shasthiupakrama (Sixty measures of treatment of wound). Bhallātaka has been used for kr̥ṣṇakarma and for paṇḍukarma, rohiniphala, vidula, kasisa, madhuka, kapittha, rochana, tuttha, cakramarda, arjuna and rasanjana have been used.²⁶

Acharya Charaka described bhasmas of iron, kasisa and triphala (haritaki, vibhitaki and amalaki) flowers in kr̥ṣṇakarma. To restore the natural colour of the skin, Kaliyaka, nata /tagaranagakeshara triphala and roots of dhyamaka, ashvattha and nichula have been used.²⁷

In Kautilya Arthashastra -

The formulation prepared out of Sarsapa, Avalguja, snuhi, Dhanyamla, katukaalabu, & nagara does kr̥ṣṇakarma.

For pāṇḍukarma, different formulations prepared out of Koshataki, shatavari, Haritala, Manashila can be used.²⁸

2.3. Miraculous preparation

A number of diseases have been mentioned in Arthashastra, indicating that those diseases were prevalent during that time. For some of them, specific formulations have been mentioned which are tabulated in Table 8.²⁹

Discussion

Acharya Sushruta explains paratantraavalokanam as a tool to improve knowledge and intelligence. A person should not restrict himself/herself to only one Shastra; rather one should refer other shastra for better understanding of the subject.³⁰

Visajusta Anna & Visha Pariksha by Agni

Food is considered to be the cause of stability for all living beings. Ahara is said to be mahabhaisajya by Acharya Kashypa. Ahara is said to be the basis of life, strength, complexion, ojas, functioning of the indriyas, happiness, increase of dhatu and so on, which can be achieved if it is consumed wholesomely.³¹ Unwhole some foods may lead to murcha, chardi, atisara, adhmana, daha, vepathu, trishna,dysfunction of indriyas, pandu and karshya. So by all means, one should protect food from getting unwholesome. For that purpose, our Acharyas had incorporated methods to examine food. Many methods have been mentioned and among them Agni pariksha is one. By this Agni pariksha, one can confirm the poisonous substance by assessing the colour of the flame.

Chemical analysis is certainly one of the most significant aspects of forensic science. Almost every piece of evidence produces additional information when analysed by a chemical procedure. Test used to determine poisonous substances include

1. Presumptive test

2. Confirmatory test

Presumptive test is less accurate and rarely shows that the suspected element may be present. Confirmatory test provides an informative identification of substance and query. Presumptive test or the colour test is a chemical procedure in which the substance tested for, is acted on a reagent which causes a change in the reagent. Colour test may be used to determine the presence of a specific compound or general class of compound. The procedure is usually rapid and can be easily performed.

Some basic tests or colour tests for detection of poison are mentioned in Table 9.

Visha Parikshan by ingesting to birds

Acharya Charaka mentioned three types of pariksha i.e., Aptopadesha, Pratyaksha, Anumana. All the three are important to gain any sort of knowledge,³⁸ and whatever is mentioned in shastra was experimented and documented, there the role of Pratyaksha will come. Since it is mentioned in Shastra, based on that one can examine, that it is nothing but the Aptopadesha pramana. In the present context, while detecting the poison, Aptopadesha followed by Pratyaksha has been incorporated. Here, an attempt has been made to correlate different views on vishapariksha as per Ayurveda and Kautilya Arthashastra; opinions are same except for bhr̥ṅgarājaḥ (Srike) & Kōkila (Cuckoo).

Vishakanya

The concept of vishakanya can be understood under the umbrella of two principles viz; pādāṁśikōkramaḥ and Oka satmya (Abhyasasatmya).^39,40 The former one is nothing but the adoption of any substance in a gradual manner. And the later one is suitability of any substance due to regular use. Those two principles have been explained extensively in Ayurveda. In the present context, from the second day of birth, ancient Indian kings would feed one tiny drop of snake venom to the baby girl, and gradual feeding of different types of poisons continued throughout the girl’s early ages to modify immune system such a way that she can with stand the poisonous effects without any harm. That is nothing but the application of pādāṁśikōkramaḥ. After exposure to poison for many years, the girl becomes habituated to poison i.e.; Oka satmya.

Vishada(Visha data) Laksana

In many contexts, Acharya Sushruta has used word Ishwar instead of Raja, ⁴¹ that shows the importance of Raja; hence protection of raja at any cost is the utmost priority of every raja vaidhya. For that every rajavaidhya should have the knowledge of symptoms of a person who attempts to poison the king. Some peculiar symptoms have been mentioned for the person who has administered poison. That can be assessed with the help of Anumana & Yukti Pramana. Enrolling the concept of Vishesha (The principle of Heterologous), a physician can catch the culprit among all the suspected people, as the behaviour of culprit will be entirely different from the other person.

Vishachikitsa

Kautilya Arthashastra, being an Economy book has extensively explained the concept of Visha as well as the treatment of Visha. Both bahya as well as abhyantara line of treatments have been narrated. Many drugs were mentioned in order to treat different poisonous condition like sarpavisha, dushivisha, visha kanya and so on. Many antidotes were also mentioned, for instance राजिचूर्णसिन्दु, वारितवरण, वारुणी, तण्डुलीयक and so on acts as an antidote in case of Dhatura poison.⁴² Many poisonous compounds have been mentioned which can be used against the enemy. Variety of Shodhana procedures were incorporated to convert poisonous substances into medicines. Having applied these remedies to secure the safety of himself and his army, a king should make use of poisonous smokes and other mixtures to vitiate the surrounding environment in war field in order to harm and misguide the enemy.

Acharya Charaka mentioned the modalities in terms of encountering the poisonous conditions.⁴³ It suggests that depending on the patient’s condition and with patients’ evaluation, physician should choose the proper modality wisely. The same is applicable with the general treatment protocol. The said that the order of 24 modalities can be modified.

Acharya Sushruta’s concept of vishachikitsa is very different. He has mentioned every minute detail with respect to vishachikitsa, contributed separate Sthana on Visha and its chikitsa i.e., Kalpasthana. Starting from Anna visha, he had mentioned sthavaravisha, jangamavisha, dushivisha, garavisha upto kitavisha along with the treatment modalities. Similarity could be observed in vishachikitsa in Sushruta Samhitha and Kautilya Arthshastra viz., Kashaya pana, Mani dharana along with implementing patākā and dundubhi. Sushruta Kalpasthana 6^th chapter i.e., dundubhisvanīyakalpaḥ Adhyaya shows the importance of external line of treatment in case of different visha.

Mantra prayoga

Mantras are Vedic in origin. It is considered that it is capable of transformation. Their use and type vary according to the school and philosophy associated with the mantra. In arthashastra, the mantras have been narrated to fulfil the following purposes viz; to induce sleep in whole animal life, to drive in the sky and to unlock the door. Among the eight kinds of calamities, for serpents and demons he has mentioned the application of mantras; and even for the purpose of Vashikarana (mesmerism).The motive was to protect one’s own people and hurt those of the enemy.

Although mantra, mani and aushadhi being the basic forms of treatment in Ayurveda, mantra treatment was given first preference as it is said to be one among the Daivavyapasrayachikitsa. The Vedas claimed that one can attain God, health, wealth and luck through chanting the right mantras correctly.As per the Ayurveda concerns, one can achieve highest form of health with it. Vedic Mantra treatment is an analogous science to Ayurveda. There are many disease conditions in which mantra has been explained as a prime line of treatment.

Drug induced pigmentation

The purpose of alteration in skin was different in both Shastras. In Kautilya Arthashastra, the purpose was to make a spy, and the goal of the secret service in Arthashastra was to test the integrity of government officials, spy on cartels and population for conspiracy, to monitor hostile kingdoms suspected of preparing for war or in war against the state. But in Ayurveda, this concept has been used to treat patients with discolorations in the form of Shvitraroga, Vrana, Neelika, Tila and other treatment modalities.

Miraculous preparation

Kautilya had mentioned many disease names and explained the treatment protocol for the same such as Unmada, Sosha, Kustha, Shiroroga and so on,which are mentioned in the context of Visha. When we look into treatment aspect, we get many descriptions which are similar to that of Ayurveda. For instance,

In Unmada, the Nasya with the help of kaidarya, Tilataila is mentioned, which is unique contribution of Kautilya Arthashatra.

Kaidarya - srotovivarana and lekhanaguna of Katu rasa does the srotosodhanaso that the drugs can reach the targeted point.

Tilataila – It is bitter, heavy, snighdha in nature and Ushnavirya helps in improving digestion and best in case of Vataja Unmada.

Conclusion

Basic seeds of medicine can be found in Vedas,which is elaborately reflected in Upanishads, Puranas and other ancient scriptures but in scattered form. Kautilya Arthashastra is not an exception for the same. Subsequently the system of medicine had its individual entity in the name of Ayurveda, the science of life in systematic manner. Later on, the trend of writing the scriptures had started and many samhithas have been written by different authors in the field of Ayurveda. The most recognised scriptures are Cararka Samhita, Susruta Samhitha, Astangahrudaya, Astangasangraha (Brihatraii).These samhithas have been narrated and divided into eight branches.Among them Agada Tantra is one which deals with Visha, Vishachikitsa. A similar kind of description was found in Kautilya Arthashatsra in scattered form. That has been complied, correlated and analysed with description available in Ayurveda. An unique orientation of Kautilya Arthashastra can be explored and analysed through the eyes of Ayurveda and research.

Conflict of interest

None